Telomeres — repeating nucleotide sequences (TTAGGG in humans) at the ends of chromosomes, protecting DNA from degradation. They shorten with each cell division.
Hayflick limit — the maximum number of divisions a human somatic cell undergoes (~50–60 for fibroblasts), linked to the exhaustion of the telomere reserve.
Telomerase — an enzyme that restores telomeres. Active in germ and stem cells; almost completely switched off in most somatic cells after birth. Reactivated in cancer cells.
Inflammaging — chronic low-grade inflammation that increases with age. One of the central drivers of age-related diseases: atherosclerosis, neurodegeneration, type 2 diabetes.
Heteroplasmy — the coexistence of normal and mutant copies of mitochondrial DNA within a single cell. When the proportion of defective copies exceeds ~70%, mitochondrial disease manifests.
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